what is the most serious threat to aviation​ safety, and can anything be done about​ it?

State in which risks associated with aviation are at an acceptable level

Aviation condom is the study and do of managing risks in aviation. This includes preventing aviation accidents and incidents through research, educating air travel personnel, passengers and the full general public, as well as the design of shipping and aviation infrastructure. The aviation industry is subject to significant regulation and oversight.

Aviation security is focused on protecting air travelers, aircraft and infrastructure from intentional impairment or disruption, rather than unintentional mishaps.

Statistics [edit]

Evolution [edit]

Yearly fatalities^[a] since 1942, 5-year boilerplate in red: fatalities peaked in 1972.^[1]

In 1926 and 1927, in that location were a full of 24 fatal commercial airline crashes, a further 16 in 1928, and 51 in 1929 (killing 61 people), which remains the worst year on record at an blow rate of virtually one for every 1,000,000 miles (1,600,000 km) flown.^{[ citation needed ]} Based on the current numbers flying, this would equate to vii,000 fatal incidents per year.

For the ten-year period 2002 to 2011, 0.6 fatal accidents happened per ane 1000000 flights globally, 0.4 per meg hours flown, 22.0 fatalities per one million flights or 12.7 per 1000000 hours flown.^[2]

From 310 million passengers in 1970, air transport had grown to iii,696 1000000 in 2016, led by 823 million in the U.s., then 488 meg in China.^[three] In 2016, there were 19 fatal accidents of civil airliners of more than fourteen passengers, resulting in 325 fatalities, the second safest year ever later on 2015 with 16 accidents and 2013 with 265 fatalities.^[4] For planes heavier than v.seven t, there were 34.nine one thousand thousand departures and 75 accidents worldwide with 7 of these fatal for 182 fatalities, the lowest since 2013 : 5.21 fatalities per one thousand thousand departures.^[5]

In 2017, in that location were 10 fatal airliner accidents, resulting in 44 occupant fatalities and 35 persons on the ground: the safest twelvemonth ever for commercial aviation, both by the number of fatal accidents as well as in fatalities.^[6] Past 2019, fatal accidents per meg flights decreased 12 fold since 1970, from six.35 to 0.51, and fatalities per trillion revenue rider kilometre (RPK) decreased 81 fold from 3,218 to 40.^[vii]

Typology [edit]

Rails rubber represents 36% of accidents, ground safety xviii% and loss of control in-flight 16%.^[five]

The chief cause is pilot in control error.^{[ commendation needed ]} Safety has improved from better aircraft design process, applied science and maintenance, the development of navigation aids, and safety protocols and procedures.

Ship comparisons [edit]

At that place are iii primary means in which risk of fatality of a certain style of travel tin can exist measured: Deaths per billion typical journeys taken, deaths per billion hours traveled, or deaths per billion kilometers traveled. The following tabular array displays these statistics for the U.k. 1990–2000. Annotation that aviation safety does non include travelling to the airport.^{[viii] [9]}

Blazon	Deaths per billion
	Journeys	Hours	km
Bus	4.3	11.one	0.iv
Rail	20	30	0.6
Van	xx	60	1.2
Car	40	130	3.ane
Foot	forty	220	54.2
Water	90	50	2.6
Air	117	thirty.eight	0.05
Pedal cycle	170	550	44.half-dozen
Motorbike	1640	4840	108.9
Paragliding		8850[x] [11]
Skydiving	7500[12]	75000[thirteen]
Space Shuttle[xiv]	17000000	70000	6.half dozen

The outset two statistics are computed for typical travels for respective forms of transport, and so they cannot be used directly to compare risks related to different forms of transport in a particular travel "from A to B". For instance: co-ordinate to statistics, a typical flight from Los Angeles to New York will carry a larger risk factor than a typical car travel from home to office. But a machine travel from Los Angeles to New York would non be typical. It would be equally big as several dozens of typical machine travels, and associated run a risk will exist larger as well. Because the journey would take a much longer fourth dimension, the overall chance associated by making this journey by car will exist higher than making the same journey by air, even if each individual hour of car travel can be less risky than an hour of flight.

It is therefore important to utilize each statistic in a proper context. When it comes to a question about risks associated with a particular long-range travel from one urban center to some other, the most suitable statistic is the third one, thus giving a reason to name air travel as the safest course of long-range transportation. All the same, if the availability of an air choice makes an otherwise inconvenient journeying possible, so this argument loses some of its force.

Aviation industry insurers base of operations their calculations on the deaths per journeying statistic while the aviation industry itself generally uses the deaths per kilometre statistic in printing releases.^[15]

Since 1997, the number of fatal air accidents has been no more than i for every 2,000,000,000 person-miles flown^{[ citation needed ]} (e.grand., 100 people flying a plane for 1,000 miles (1,600 km) counts as 100,000 person-miles, making information technology comparable with methods of transportation with different numbers of passengers, such as ane person driving an car for 100,000 miles (160,000 km), which is likewise 100,000 person-miles), and thus one of the safest modes of transportation when measured by distance traveled.

The death per billion hours when skydiving assume a 6 minutes skydive (not accounting for the plane ascent). The death per billion journey when paragliding presume an average flight of 15 minutes, so 4 flights per 60 minutes.^[16]

The Economist notes that air travel is safer by altitude travelled, but trains are as condom as planes; and cars four times more chancy for deaths per time travelled, and cars and trains are respectively 3 times and six times safer than planes by number of journeys taken.^[17]

United States [edit]

Betwixt 1990 and 2015, there were 1874 commuter and air taxi accidents in the U.Southward. of which 454 (24%) were fatal, resulting in 1296 deaths, including 674 accidents (36%) and 279 fatalities (22%) in Alaska alone.^[18]

The number of deaths per passenger-mile on commercial airlines in the United States between 2000 and 2010 was about 0.two deaths per 10 billion passenger-miles.^{[19] [twenty]} For driving, the rate was 150 per x billion vehicle-miles for 2000 : 750 times higher per mile than for flying in a commercial airplane.

At that place were no fatalities on large scheduled commercial airlines in the United States for over ix years, between the Colgan Air Flight 3407 crash in Feb 2009, and a catastrophic engine failure on Southwest Airlines Flight 1380 in Apr 2018.^[21]

Security [edit]

Another aspect of safety is protection from intentional harm or belongings damage, also known equally security.

The terrorist attacks of 2001 are not counted as accidents. Notwithstanding, fifty-fifty if they were counted as accidents they would take added almost 1 death per billion person-miles. Ii months later, American Airlines Flying 587 crashed in New York Metropolis, killing 265 people, including 5 on the ground, causing 2001 to show a very loftier fatality rate. Even and so, the charge per unit that year including the attacks (estimated here to be about 4 deaths per billion person-miles), is safe compared to another forms of send when measured by distance traveled.

History [edit]

Before WWII [edit]

The first aircraft electrical or electronic device avionics organization was Lawrence Sperry's autopilot, demonstrated in June 1914.^[22]

The Transcontinental Airway System chain of beacons was built by the Commerce Department in 1923 to guide airmail flights.^[22]

Gyrocopters were developed by Juan de la Cierva to avert stall and spin accidents, and for that invented cyclic and collective controls used by helicopters.^[22] The offset flying of a gyrocopter was on 17 January 1923.

During the 1920s, the first laws were passed in the USA to regulate ceremonious aviation, notably the Air Commerce Act of 1926 which required pilots and aircraft to be examined and licensed, for accidents to be properly investigated, and for the establishment of condom rules and navigation aids, under the Aeronautics Branch of the United states Department of Commerce.

A network of aerial lighthouses was established in the Great britain and Europe during the 1920s and 1930s.^[23] Use of the lighthouses has declined with the advent of radio navigation aids such equally NDB (Non-directional beacon), VOR (VHF omnidirectional ranging) and DME (altitude measuring equipment). The last operational aeriform lighthouse in the United Kingdom is on top of the cupola over the RAF College main hall at RAF Cranwell.

1 of the first aids for air navigation to be introduced in the United states in the late 1920s was airfield lighting to assist pilots to make landings in poor conditions or after dark. The Precision Approach Path Indicator was adult from this in the 1930s, indicating to the pilot the bending of descent to the airfield. This later became adopted internationally through the standards of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).

Jimmy Doolittle developed Musical instrument rating and fabricated his starting time "blind" flight in September 1929. The March 1931 wooden wing failure of a Transcontinental & Western Air Fokker F-x carrying Knute Rockne, coach of the Academy of Notre Matriarch'due south football team, reinforced all-metallic airframes and led to a more formal accident investigation system. On Sept. 4, 1933, a Douglas DC-one test flight was conducted with ane of the two engines close down during the takeoff run, climbed to eight,000 feet (2,400 m), and completed its flight, proving twin aircraft engine rubber. With greater range than lights and atmospheric condition amnesty, radio navigation aids were offset used in the 1930s, similar the Australian Aeradio stations guiding ship flights, with a light buoy and a modified Lorenz beam transmitter (the German bullheaded-landing equipment preceding the mod musical instrument landing system - ILS).^[22] ILS was first used by a scheduled flight to make a landing in a snowstorm at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1938, and a form of ILS was adopted by the ICAO for international apply in 1949.

WWII and later [edit]

Hard runways were built worldwide for World State of war Two to avoid waves and floating hazards plaguing seaplanes.^[22]

Developed past the U.S. and introduced during World War II, LORAN replaced the sailors' less reliable compass and celestial navigation over water and survived until it was replaced past the Global Positioning System.^[22]

Post-obit the evolution of radar in Globe War Ii, information technology was deployed as a landing aid for ceremonious aviation in the form of ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems then equally the airdrome surveillance radar as an aid to air traffic control in the 1950s.

A number of ground-based weather condition radar systems can discover areas of severe turbulence.

A modern Honeywell Intuvue weather condition organization visualizes weather patterns up to 300 miles (480 km) abroad.

Distance measuring equipment (DME) in 1948 and VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) stations became the principal route navigation means during the 1960s, superseding the low frequency radio ranges and the not-directional beacon (NDB): the ground-based VOR stations were often co-located with DME transmitters and the pilots could establish their bearing and altitude to the station.^{[ commendation needed ]}

With the arrival of Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), satellite navigation has get accurate plenty for altitude every bit well as positioning utilize, and is being used increasingly for musical instrument approaches as well as en-route navigation. However, considering the GPS constellation is a single point of failure, on-lath Inertial Navigation System (INS) or basis-based navigation aids are still required for backup.

In 2017, Rockwell Collins reported it had become more plush to certify than to develop a system, from 75% applied science and 25% certification in past years.^[24] It calls for a global harmonization between certifying government to avert redundant technology and certification tests rather than recognizing the others approval and validation.^[25]

Groundings of entire classes of aircraft out of equipment safety concerns is unusual, only this has occurred to the de Havilland Comet in 1954 afterwards multiple crashes due to metal fatigue and hull failure, the McDonnell Douglas DC-ten in 1979 after the crash of American Airlines Flight 191 due to engine loss, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner in 2013 later on its bombardment problems, and the Boeing 737 MAX in 2019 afterwards two crashes preliminarily tied to a flying control arrangement.

Aviation rubber hazards [edit]

Foreign object debris [edit]

Strange object debris (FOD) includes items left in the aircraft structure during industry/repairs, debris on the rails and solids encountered in flight (e.1000. hail and dust). Such items tin harm engines and other parts of the aircraft. Air France Flying 4590 crashed later hitting a part that had fallen from another shipping.

Misleading information and lack of information [edit]

A pilot misinformed by a printed certificate (manual, map, etc.), reacting to a faulty instrument or indicator (in the cockpit or on the ground),^{[26] [27]} or following inaccurate instructions or information from flight or ground control can lose spatial orientation, or make another mistake, and consequently lead to accidents or virtually misses.^{[28] [29] [30] [31]} The crash of Air New Zealand Flying 901 was a outcome of receiving and interpreting incorrect coordinates, which caused the pilots to inadvertently fly into a mountain.

Lightning [edit]

Boeing studies showed that airliners are struck by lightning twice per year on average; aircraft withstand typical lightning strikes without damage.

The dangers of more powerful positive lightning were not understood until the destruction of a glider in 1999.^[32] It has since been suggested that positive lightning might have caused the crash of Pan Am Flight 214 in 1963. At that fourth dimension, shipping were not designed to withstand such strikes because their existence was unknown. The 1985 standard in force in the US at the time of the glider crash, Advisory Circular AC xx-53A,^[32] was replaced by Informational Circular AC 20-53B in 2006.^[33] However, it is unclear whether adequate protection confronting positive lightning was incorporated.^{[34] [35]}

The effects of typical lightning on traditional metal-covered shipping are well understood and serious damage from a lightning strike on an airplane is rare. The Boeing 787 Dreamliner of which the outside is carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer received no damage from a lightning strike during testing.^[36]

Ice and snowfall [edit]

Snowfall edifice on the intake to a Rolls-Royce RB211 engine of a Boeing 747-400. Snowfall and ice present unique threats, and shipping operating in these weather conditions often require de-icing equipment.

Ice and snow can be major factors in airline accidents. In 2005, Southwest Airlines Flight 1248 slid off the cease of a runway after landing in heavy snowfall conditions, killing one kid on the basis.

Even a small amount of icing or coarse frost can greatly impair the ability of a wing to develop adequate elevator, which is why regulations prohibit ice, snow or even frost on the wings or tail, prior to takeoff.^[37] Air Florida Flight 90 crashed on takeoff in 1982, as a outcome of ice/snow on its wings.

An accumulation of water ice during flight can be catastrophic, equally evidenced by the loss of command and subsequent crashes of American Eagle Flight 4184 in 1994, and Comair Flight 3272 in 1997. Both aircraft were turboprop airliners, with straight wings, which tend to be more susceptible to inflight ice accumulation, than are swept-wing jet airliners.^[38]

Airlines and airports ensure that aircraft are properly de-iced before takeoff whenever the weather involves icing weather condition. Modern airliners are designed to forestall ice buildup on wings, engines, and tails (empennage) by either routing heated air from jet engines through the leading edges of the wing, and inlets^{[ citation needed ]}, or on slower aircraft, by use of inflatable rubber "boots" that aggrandize to break off whatsoever accumulated ice.

Airline flying plans require airline dispatch offices to monitor the progress of weather forth the routes of their flights, helping the pilots to avoid the worst of inflight icing conditions. Shipping tin can also be equipped with an ice detector in guild to warn pilots to leave unexpected ice accumulation areas, earlier the situation becomes disquisitional.^{[ citation needed ]} Pitot tubes in mod airplanes and helicopters accept been provided with the role of "Pitot Heating" to prevent accidents similar Air France Flight 447 acquired by the pitot tube freezing and giving false readings.

Air current shear or microburst [edit]

Effect of wind shear on aircraft trajectory. Note how merely correcting for the initial gust front can accept dire consequences.

A air current shear is a modify in wind speed and/or direction over a relatively short distance in the temper. A microburst is a localized column of sinking air that drops down in a thunderstorm. Both of these are potential weather threats that may cause an aviation accident.^[39]

Strong outflow from thunderstorms causes rapid changes in the three-dimensional current of air velocity only higher up ground level. Initially, this outflow causes a headwind that increases airspeed, which unremarkably causes a pilot to reduce engine ability if they are unaware of the wind shear. As the shipping passes into the region of the downdraft, the localized headwind diminishes, reducing the aircraft's airspeed and increasing its sink rate. Then, when the aircraft passes through the other side of the downdraft, the headwind becomes a tailwind, reducing lift generated by the wings, and leaving the aircraft in a low-power, depression-speed descent. This tin pb to an blow if the aircraft is also low to event a recovery before ground contact. Between 1964 and 1985, wind shear directly caused or contributed to 26 major civil transport shipping accidents in the U.S. that led to 620 deaths and 200 injuries.^[40]

Engine failure [edit]

An engine may fail to function because of fuel starvation (e.thousand. British Airways Flight 38), fuel exhaustion (e.g. Air Canada Flying 143), foreign object damage (due east.g. US Airways Flying 1549), mechanical failure due to metal fatigue (east.1000. Kegworth air disaster, El Al Flight 1862, China Airlines Flight 358), mechanical failure due to improper maintenance (east.chiliad. American Airlines Flight 191), mechanical failure caused by an original manufacturing defect in the engine (e.grand. Qantas Flight 32, United Airlines Flight 232, Delta Air Lines Flight 1288), and pilot error (e.g. Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701).

In a multi-engine shipping, failure of a unmarried engine ordinarily results in a precautionary landing being performed, for example landing at a diversion airport instead of continuing to the intended destination. Failure of a 2nd engine (eastward.g. US Airways Flight 1549) or impairment to other aircraft systems caused by an uncontained engine failure (due east.g. United Airlines Flight 232) may, if an emergency landing is not possible, result in the shipping crashing.

Structural failure of the aircraft [edit]

Examples of failure of aircraft structures caused by metallic fatigue include the de Havilland Comet accidents (1950s) and Aloha Airlines Flight 243 (1988). Improper repair procedures tin can too cause structural failures include Japan Airlines Flight 123 (1985) and Communist china Airlines Flying 611 (2002). Now that the discipline is ameliorate understood, rigorous inspection and nondestructive testing procedures are in place.

Composite materials consist of layers of fibers embedded in a resin matrix. In some cases, specially when subjected to cyclic stress, the layers of the cloth separate from each other (delaminate) and lose strength. As the failure develops within the material, nothing is shown on the surface; musical instrument methods (often ultrasound-based) accept to be used to detect such a material failure. In the 1940s several Yakovlev Yak-9s experienced delamination of plywood in their construction.

Stalling [edit]

Stalling an aircraft (increasing the angle of assault to a point at which the wings fail to produce enough lift) is unsafe and can upshot in a crash if the airplane pilot fails to brand a timely correction.

Devices to warn the pilot when the aircraft's speed is decreasing close to the stall speed include stall warning horns (now standard on virtually all powered aircraft), stick shakers, and vox warnings. Nigh stalls are a result of the airplane pilot allowing the airspeed to be as well dull for the particular weight and configuration at the time. Stall speed is higher when ice or frost has attached to the wings and/or tail stabilizer. The more severe the icing, the higher the stall speed, non just because smooth airflow over the wings becomes increasingly more difficult, only also because of the added weight of the accumulated ice.

Crashes caused past a full stall of the airfoils include:

• British European Airways Flight 548 (1972)
• United Airlines Flying 553 (1972)
• Aeroflot Flying 7425 (1985)
• Arrow Air Flying 1285 (1985)
• Northwest Airlines Flight 255 (1987)
• The Paul Wellstone crash (2002)
• Colgan Air Flight 3407 (2009)
• Turkish Airlines Flight 1951 crash (2009)
• Air French republic Flying 447 (2009)

Fire [edit]

Safety regulations command aircraft materials and the requirements for automated fire safety systems. Usually these requirements take the form of required tests. The tests measure flammability of materials and toxicity of smoke. When the tests fail, it is on a prototype in an engineering laboratory rather than in an shipping.

Burn and its toxic fume have been the cause of accidents. An electric fire on Air Canada Flying 797 in 1983 acquired the deaths of 23 of the 46 passengers, resulting in the introduction of flooring level lighting to assist people to evacuate a smoke-filled aircraft. In 1985, a fire on the rail acquired the loss of 55 lives, 48 from the effects of incapacitating and after lethal toxic gas and smoke in the British Airtours Flight 28M blow which raised serious concerns relating to survivability – something that had not been studied in such item. The swift incursion of the fire into the fuselage and the layout of the aircraft impaired passengers' power to evacuate, with areas such equally the forwards galley surface area becoming a canteen-neck for escaping passengers, with some dying very shut to the exits. Much research into evacuation and motel and seating layouts was carried out at Cranfield Constitute to try to measure what makes a proficient evacuation road, which led to the seat layout by Overwing exits being changed by mandate and the test of evacuation requirements relating to the design of galley areas. The utilise of smoke hoods or misting systems were also examined although both were rejected.

South African Airways Flying 295 was lost in the Indian Sea in 1987 after an in-flight fire in the cargo hold could not exist suppressed by the crew. The cargo holds of most airliners are now equipped with automated halon fire extinguishing systems to combat a fire that might occur in the luggage holds. In May 1996, ValuJet Flight 592 crashed into the Florida Everglades a few minutes after takeoff considering of a fire in the forward cargo hold. All 110 people on board were killed.

At in one case, burn fighting cream paths were laid downward earlier an emergency landing, but the do was considered only marginally effective, and concerns about the depletion of fire fighting adequacy due to pre-foaming led the United States FAA to withdraw its recommendation in 1987.

1 possible cause of fires in airplanes is wiring problems that involve intermittent faults, such as wires with breached insulation touching each other, having h2o dripping on them, or brusque circuits. Notable was Swissair Flight 111 in 1998 due to an arc in the wiring of IFE which ignite flammable MPET insulation. These are difficult to detect once the shipping is on the ground. Notwithstanding, there are methods, such as spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry, that tin can feasibly test live wires on shipping during flight.^[41]

Bird strike [edit]

Bird strike is an aviation term for a collision between a bird and an aircraft. Fatal accidents have been caused past both engine failure following bird ingestion and bird strikes breaking cockpit windshields.

Jet engines take to be designed to withstand the ingestion of birds of a specified weight and number and to not lose more than a specified corporeality of thrust. The weight and numbers of birds that can exist ingested without hazarding the safe flight of the aircraft are related to the engine intake area.^[42] The hazards of ingesting birds beyond the "designed-for" limit were shown on US Airways Flight 1549 when the aircraft struck Canada geese.

The result of an ingestion event and whether information technology causes an accident, exist information technology on a small fast plane, such as military machine jet fighters, or a large transport, depends on the number and weight of birds and where they strike the fan blade span or the nose cone. Cadre damage usually results with impacts near the blade root or on the olfactory organ cone.

The highest run a risk of a bird strike occurs during takeoff and landing in the vicinity of airports, and during low-level flying, for example by military aircraft, crop dusters and helicopters. Some airports use active countermeasures, including a person with a shotgun, playing recorded sounds of predators through loudspeakers, or employing falconers. Poisonous grass can exist planted that is not palatable to birds, nor to insects that attract insectivorous birds. Passive countermeasures involve sensible^{[ clarification needed ]} land-use management, avoiding conditions attracting flocks of birds to the area (due east.m. landfills). Another tactic found effective is to let the grass at the airfield grow taller (to approximately 12 inches or 30 centimetres) as some species of birds won't state if they cannot run across 1 another.

Man factors [edit]

NASA air safety experiment (CID projection). The airplane is a Boeing 720 testing a form of jet fuel, known as "antimisting kerosene", which formed a hard-to-ignite gel when agitated violently, as in a crash.

Human factors, including airplane pilot fault, are some other potential set of factors, and currently the factor most normally institute in aviation accidents.^{[ citation needed ]} Much progress in applying human factors analysis to improving aviation safety was fabricated around the time of Earth War 2 past such pioneers as Paul Fitts and Alphonse Chapanis. However, there has been progress in safe throughout the history of aviation, such as the evolution of the pilot'due south checklist in 1937.^[43] CRM, or Coiffure Resource Direction, is a technique that makes use of the feel and knowledge of the complete flight crew to avert dependence on simply one crew member.

Pilot error and improper advice are often factors in the collision of aircraft. This can take identify in the air (1978 Pacific Southwest Airlines Flying 182) (TCAS) or on the ground (1977 Tenerife disaster) (RAAS). The barriers to effective advice accept internal and external factors.^[44] The ability of the flight coiffure to maintain state of affairs awareness is a disquisitional human factor in air safety. Human factors grooming is available to general aviation pilots and chosen single airplane pilot resource management grooming.

Failure of the pilots to properly monitor the flight instruments caused the crash of Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 in 1972. Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), and fault during accept-off and landing can take catastrophic consequences, for case causing the crash of Prinair Flight 191 on landing, as well in 1972.

Pilot fatigue [edit]

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines fatigue as "A physiological state of reduced mental or concrete operation adequacy resulting from sleep loss or extended wakefulness, cyclic phase, or workload."^[45] The phenomenon places smashing take chances on the crew and passengers of an airplane considering it significantly increases the adventure of pilot error.^[46] Fatigue is particularly prevalent amidst pilots because of "unpredictable work hours, long duty periods, circadian disruption, and insufficient sleep".^[47] These factors tin occur together to produce a combination of slumber impecuniousness, circadian rhythm furnishings, and 'fourth dimension-on task' fatigue.^[47] Regulators endeavor to mitigate fatigue past limiting the number of hours pilots are allowed to fly over varying periods of time. Experts in aviation fatigue^{[ who? ]} often find that these methods fall short of their goals.

Piloting while intoxicated [edit]

Rarely, flying crew members are arrested or field of study to disciplinary activity for being intoxicated on the chore. In 1990, iii Northwest Airlines crew members were sentenced to jail for flying while drunkard. In 2001, Northwest fired a pilot who failed a breathalyzer test later on a flight. In July 2002, both pilots of America Due west Airlines Flight 556 were arrested just before they were scheduled to fly considering they had been drinking alcohol. The pilots were fired and the FAA revoked their pilot licenses.^[48] At least one fatal airliner accident involving drunkard pilots occurred when Aero Flight 311 crashed at Koivulahti, Finland, killing all 25 on board in 1961.

Pilot suicide and murder [edit]

There have been rare instances of suicide by pilots. Although most air crew are screened for psychological fitness, a very few authorized pilots accept flown acts of suicide and even mass murder.

In 1982, Nippon Airlines Flight 350 crashed while on approach to the Tokyo Haneda Airport, killing 24 of the 174 on board. The official investigation institute the mentally sick helm had attempted suicide by placing the inboard engines into reverse thrust, while the aircraft was close to the runway. The first officer did non have enough time to countermand before the aircraft stalled and crashed.

In 1997, SilkAir Flight 185 suddenly went into a loftier dive from its cruising distance. The speed of the dive was and so high that the aircraft began to break apart before it finally crashed near Palembang, Sumatra. Later three years of investigation, the Indonesian authorities declared that the accident source could non exist adamant. Notwithstanding, the U.s. NTSB concluded that deliberate suicide by the captain was the but reasonable explanation.

In the case of EgyptAir Flight 990, it appears that the outset officeholder deliberately crashed into the Atlantic Ocean while the captain was away from his station in 1999 off Nantucket, Massachusetts.

Crew interest is one of the speculative theories in the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 on 8 March 2014.

In 2015, on March 24, Germanwings Flying 9525 (an Airbus A320-200) crashed 100 kilometres (62 mi) northwest of Squeamish, in the French Alps, subsequently a abiding descent that began ane minute after the terminal routine contact with air traffic control and shortly after the aircraft had reached its assigned cruise altitude. All 144 passengers and six crew members were killed. The crash was intentionally caused by the co-airplane pilot, Andreas Lubitz. Having been alleged "unfit to work" without telling his employer, Lubitz reported for duty, and during the flight locked the Captain out of the flightdeck. In response to the incident and the circumstances of Lubitz's involvement, aviation authorities in Canada, New Zealand, Federal republic of germany and Australia implemented new regulations that require ii authorized personnel to be present in the cockpit at all times. Three days afterwards the incident the European Aviation Safety Agency issued a temporary recommendation for airlines to ensure that at least two coiffure members, including at least one pilot, are in the cockpit at all times of the flight. Several airlines announced they had already adopted similar policies voluntarily.

Deliberate aircrew inaction [edit]

Inaction, omission, failure to human action as required, willful disregard of prophylactic procedures, disdain for rules, unjustifiable risk-taking past pilots accept also led to accidents and incidents.

Although Smartwings QS-1125 flight of 22 Baronial 2019 successfully made an emergency landing at destination, the captain was censured for failing to follow mandatory procedures, including for not landing at the nearest possible diversion airport subsequently an engine failure.

Human being factors of third parties [edit]

Unsafe human factors are not limited to airplane pilot errors. Third party factors include footing crew mishaps, ground vehicle to shipping collisions and applied science maintenance related problems. For example, failure to properly close a cargo door on Turkish Airlines Flying 981 in 1974 caused the loss of the aircraft. (However, blueprint of the cargo door latch was also a major factor in the accident.) In the case of Japan Airlines Flying 123 in 1985, improper repair of previous damage led to explosive decompression of the cabin, which in turn destroyed the vertical stabilizer and damaged all four hydraulic systems which powered all the flying controls.

Controlled flight into terrain [edit]

Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) is a class of accidents in which an aircraft is flown under control into terrain or human-fabricated structures. CFIT accidents typically result from airplane pilot error or of navigational system error. Failure to protect ILS critical areas tin can also cause CFIT accidents^{[ dubious – discuss ]}. In Dec 1995, American Airlines Flying 965 tracked off course while budgeted Cali, Colombia, and striking a mountainside despite a terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS) terrain warning in the cockpit and desperate pilot attempt to gain altitude after the warning. Crew position awareness and monitoring of navigational systems are essential to the prevention of CFIT accidents. As of February 2008^[update], over xl,000 shipping had enhanced TAWS installed, and they had flown over 800 million hours without a CFIT accident.^[49]

Another anti-CFIT tool is the Minimum Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW) system which monitors the altitudes transmitted by aircraft transponders and compares that with the arrangement's defined minimum safe altitudes for a given area. When the organization determines the aircraft is lower, or might presently be lower, than the minimum safe distance, the air traffic controller receives an audio-visual and visual warning and then alerts the airplane pilot that the aircraft is too low.^[50]

Electromagnetic interference [edit]

The use of sure electronic equipment is partially or entirely prohibited as it might interfere with aircraft operation,^[51] such every bit causing compass deviations.^{[ citation needed ]} Use of some types of personal electronic devices is prohibited when an shipping is below ten,000 feet (3,000 m), taking off, or landing. Use of a mobile phone is prohibited on most flights because in-flight usage creates problems with ground-based cells.^{[51] [52]}

Ground damage [edit]

Footing damage to an shipping. Several stringers were cutting and the shipping was grounded

Various basis support equipment operate in close proximity to the fuselage and wings to service the shipping and occasionally cause accidental damage in the form of scratches in the pigment or small dents in the pare. However, considering aircraft structures (including the outer peel) play such a critical office in the safe operation of a flight, all damage is inspected, measured, and possibly tested to ensure that whatever harm is within condom tolerances.

An instance problem was the depressurization incident on Alaska Airlines Flight 536 in 2005. During ground services a baggage handler hit the side of the shipping with a tug towing a train of luggage carts. This damaged the metallic skin of the aircraft. This damage was not reported and the airplane departed. Climbing through 26,000 feet (vii,900 thou) the damaged section of the skin gave way under the divergence in pressure betwixt the within of the aircraft and the outside air. The motel depressurized explosively necessitating a rapid descent to denser (breathable) air and an emergency landing. Post-landing examination of the fuselage revealed a 12-inch (30 cm) hole on the right side of the aeroplane.^[53]

Volcanic ash [edit]

Plumes of volcanic ash well-nigh active volcanoes can impairment propellers, engines and cockpit windows.^{[54] [55]} In 1982, British Airways Flying 9 flew through an ash cloud and temporarily lost power from all four engines. The plane was badly damaged, with all the leading edges beingness scratched. The front windscreens had been so desperately "sand" blasted by the ash that they could non be used to country the aircraft.^[56]

Prior to 2010 the full general approach taken past airspace regulators was that if the ash concentration rose above nix, then the airspace was considered dangerous and was consequently airtight.^[57] Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers enable liaison between meteorologists, volcanologists, and the aviation industry.^[58]

Runway prophylactic [edit]

Types of runway safety incidents include:

• Rails excursion – an incident involving only a unmarried aircraft making an inappropriate exit from the runway.
• Track overrun – a specific type of excursion where the shipping does not finish before the end of the runway (e.grand., Air French republic Flight 358).
• Runway incursion – incorrect presence of a vehicle, person, or another aircraft on the track (e.m., Tenerife aerodrome disaster).
• Track defoliation – crew misidentification the rail for landing or have-off (eastward.g., Comair Flying 191, Singapore Airlines Flying six).

Terrorism [edit]

Aircrew are normally trained to handle hijack situations.^{[ citation needed ]} Since the September 11, 2001, attacks, stricter airport and airline security measures are in place to forestall terrorism, such as security checkpoints and locking the cockpit doors during flight.

In the United States, the Federal Flight Deck Officeholder program is run by the Federal Air Marshal Service, with the aim of grooming agile and licensed airline pilots to bear weapons and defend their aircraft against criminal activity and terrorism. Upon completion of government training, selected pilots enter a covert law enforcement and counter-terrorism service. Their jurisdiction is normally express to a flight deck or a motel of a commercial airliner or a cargo shipping they operate while on duty.

Armed services action [edit]

Passenger planes have rarely been attacked in both peacetime and war. Examples:

• In 1955, Bulgaria shot down El Al Flying 402.
• In 1973, Israel shot down Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114.
• In 1983, the Soviet Union shot down Korean Air Lines Flying 007.
• In 1988, the United States shot down Iran Air Flight 655.
• In 2001, the Ukrainian Air Forcefulness accidentally shot down Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 during an practice.
• In 2014, a rebel from Ukraine- armed with the Russian Aerospace Defense Forces Buk missile system - shot down Malaysia Airlines Flight 17.^[59]
• In 2020, Iran shot downwardly Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752.

Accident survivability [edit]

Earlier tragedies investigations and improved engineering has allowed many safety improvements that have allowed an increasing safer aviation.^[39]

Drome pattern [edit]

EMAS bed after being run over past landing gear

Aerodrome design and location tin have a large bear upon on aviation condom, especially since some airports such as Chicago Midway International Airport were originally built for propeller planes and many airports are in congested areas where it is difficult to meet newer safety standards. For example, the FAA issued rules in 1999 calling for a track safe area, usually extending 500 feet (150 m) to each side and 1,000 feet (300 m) beyond the end of a rail. This is intended to cover ninety percent of the cases of an aircraft leaving the runway by providing a buffer space free of obstacles.^[lx] Many older airports do not meet this standard. 1 method of substituting for the 1,000 feet (300 thousand) at the end of a rail for airports in congested areas is to install an engineered materials arrestor system (EMAS). These systems are usually fabricated of a lightweight, crushable concrete that absorbs the free energy of the aircraft to bring information technology to a rapid end. As of 2008^[update], they have stopped iii aircraft at JFK Airport.

Emergency airplane evacuations [edit]

According to a 2000 report by the National Transportation Condom Lath, emergency aircraft evacuations happen about one time every 11 days in the U.South. While some situations are extremely dire, such as when the plane is on fire, in many cases the greatest challenge for passengers tin be the utilize of the evacuation slide. In a Time commodity on the bailiwick, Amanda Ripley reported that when a new supersized Airbus A380 underwent mandatory evacuation tests in 2006, thirty-three of the 873 evacuating volunteers got hurt. While the evacuation was considered a success, one volunteer suffered a broken leg, while the remaining 32 received slide burns. Such accidents are common. In her article, Ripley provided tips on how to make information technology downwardly the airplane slide without injury.^[61] Another improvement to plane evacuations is the requirement by the Federal Aviation Assistants for planes to demonstrate an evacuation fourth dimension of xc seconds with half the emergency exits blocked for each type of airplane in their fleet. Co-ordinate to studies, 90 seconds is the time needed to evacuate before the plane starts burning, earlier there can be a very large fire or explosions, or before fumes fill the cabin.^{[39] [60]}

Aircraft materials and design [edit]

Changes such as using new materials for seat fabric and insulation has given between xl and lx boosted seconds to people on lath to evacuate before the cabin gets filled with fire and potential mortiferous fumes.^[39] Other improvements through the years include the employ of properly rated seatbelts, affect resistant seat frames, and airplane wings and engines designed to shear off to absorb touch on forces.^[60]

Radar and wind shear detection systems [edit]

As the consequence of the accidents due to air current shear and other weather disturbances, most notably the 1985 crash of Delta Air Lines Flight 191, the U.Southward. Federal Aviation Administration mandated that all commercial aircraft have on-board current of air shear detection systems by 1993.^[40] Since 1995, the number of major civil aircraft accidents caused by wind shear has dropped to approximately one every ten years, due to the mandated on-lath detection likewise as the addition of Doppler weather radar units on the ground (NEXRAD).^{[ citation needed ]} The installation of high-resolution Terminal Doppler Weather Radar stations at many U.S. airports that are commonly affected by air current shear has further aided the ability of pilots and ground controllers to avoid current of air shear weather condition.^[62]

Accidents and incidents [edit]

• List of airship accidents
• Lists of aviation accidents and incidents
• Aviation accidents and incidents
• List of airliner shootdown incidents
• Flight recorder, includes flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder

National investigation organizations [edit]

• Australian Send Safety Bureau
• Flugunfalluntersuchungsstelle im BMVIT (Austria)
• Centro de Investigação e Prevenção de Acidentes Aeronáuticos (Brazil)
• Transportation Condom Board of Canada
• Air Accidents Investigation Establish (Czech republic)
• Danish Aircraft Accident Investigation Lath
• Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses cascade la sécurité de 50'Aviation Civile (France)
• Bundesstelle für Flugunfalluntersuchung (Germany)
• Air Blow Investigation Unit (Ireland)
• Agenzia Nazionale per la Sicurezza del Volo (Italian republic)
• Aircraft and Railway Accidents Investigation Commission (Nihon)
• Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand
• Transport Accident Investigation Commission (New Zealand)
• Onderzoeksraad voor Veiligheid (Holland)
• Civil Aviation Authorisation of the Philippines
• Comisión de Investigación de Accidentes e Incidentes de Aviación Civil (Espana)
• Swedish Accident Investigation Board
• Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (Switzerland)
• Air Accidents Investigation Co-operative (UK)
• National Transportation Safety Board (The states)
• European Co-ordination Center for Aircraft Incident Reporting Systems (ECCAIRS)
• International Civil Aviation System
• South African Ceremonious Aviation Authority (South Africa)
• Aircraft Blow Investigation Bureau (India)
• KNKT - Komite Nasional Keselamatan Transportasi (Republic of indonesia)

Air safety investigators [edit]

Air safe investigators are trained and authorized to investigate aviation accidents and incidents: to research, analyse, and report their conclusions. They may be specialized in aircraft structures, air traffic control, flying recorders or human factors. They tin exist employed past regime organizations responsible for aviation safety, manufacturers or unions.

Safety improvement initiatives [edit]

The safety comeback initiatives are aviation safety partnerships between regulators, manufacturers, operators, professional unions, research organisations, and international aviation organisations to farther enhance safety.^[63] Some major safety initiatives worldwide are:

• Commercial Aviation Safety Squad (Cast) in the United states of america. The Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST) was founded in 1998 with a goal to reduce the commercial aviation fatality rate in the United States by 80 percent by 2007.
• European Strategic Prophylactic Initiative (ESSI) . The European Strategic Condom Initiative (ESSI) is an aviation safety partnership between EASA, other regulators and the industry. The initiative objective is to further raise condom for citizens in Europe and worldwide through safety analysis, implementation of price effective activity plans, and coordination with other safety initiatives worldwide.

After the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, in June 2014, the International Air Ship Association said information technology was working on implementing new measures to track aircraft in flight in real time. A special console was considering a range of options including the product of equipment specially designed to ensure real-time tracking.^[64]

Since airplane pilot fault accounts for between one-third and 60% of aviation accidents, advances in automation and technology could replace some or all of the duties of the aircraft pilots. Automation since the 1980s has already eliminated the need for flying engineers. In complex situations with severely degraded systems, the problem-solving and sentence capability of humans is challenging to achieve with automated systems, for example the catastrophic engine failures experienced by United Airlines Flight 232 and Qantas Flying 32.^[65] Nonetheless, with more than accurate software modeling of aeronautic factors, test planes have been successfully flown in these conditions.^[66]

While the accident rate is very depression, to ensure they do non rise with the air transport growth, experts recommend creating a robust civilization of collecting information from employees without blame.^[67]

Regulation [edit]

• Directorate- General of Ceremonious Aviation, India.
• Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)
• Department of Infrastructure, Send, Regional Evolution and Local Government (Australia)
• European Aviation Rubber Agency
• Federal Aviation Administration (U.s.a.)
  • Federal Aviation Regulations
• Irish gaelic Aviation Authority
• Send Canada
• Advisers General of Ceremonious Aviation (Indonesia)

Run into as well [edit]

• Aircraft fire trainer
• Aircraft hijacking
• Drome security
• Aviation Rubber Network
• Aviation Safety Reporting Arrangement
• Ballistic parachute
• Crashworthiness
• Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation
• Hazard analysis
• Health hazards of air travel
• IATA Operational Safety Audit
• Jet Airliner Crash Data Evaluation Centre
• Lasers and aviation safety
• Mid-air collision
• Airplane pilot mistake
• Safety of emergency medical services flights
• Sensory illusions in aviation
• Sixty second review, a technique used by flight attendants to focus and prepare for a sudden emergency
• SKYbrary
• Swiss cheese model
• Organisation accident
• Tombstone mentality
• Travel § Rubber
• Uncontrolled decompression
• Wind shear
• Zonal safe analysis

Notes [edit]

1. ^ from fourteen+ passengers airliners hull losses

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External links [edit]

• 10 Plane Crashes That Changed Aviation
• Air Condom at Curlie
• Safety Behaviours, a guide for pilots (comprehensive human factors data)
• NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS)
• Latest Aviation Condom Occurrences at the Aviation Prophylactic Network
• Aviation Rubber: Advancements Being Pursued to Amend Airliner Motel Occupant Prophylactic and Health, 2003

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_safety

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